Agriculture & Environment
3rd GORILLA Conference Off to a Reflective Start
The 3rd International Conference on Geographical Science for Resilient Communities, Ecosystems and Livelihoods under Global Environmental Change (GORILLA) got off to a reflective start on Wednesday 4th December 2024 as delegates recognized that only 17% of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) targets are on track to be achieved by 2030. Officially presided over by the State Minister for Environment, Hon. Beatrice Atim Anywar the opening ceremony was also graced by His Royal Highness Jude Mike Mudoma, the Umukhukha of Bamasaba Cultural Institution, Inzu Ya Masaba.
Organised by the College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences (CAES), Makerere University in partnership with the International Geographical Union (IGU) Commission of Biogeography and Biodiversity, the IGU Commission on African Studies, Uganda Geographical Association, and the International Association of Landscape Ecology (IALE) African Chapter, the 3rd GORILLA Conference was aimed at contributing to the realization of the Global Development Agenda 2030. Specifically, the conference sought to provide a platform for conceptual, empirical, and theoretical conversations to address how science can help in bridging gaps and addressing sustainable development deficits.
Overview of the Conference
The National Organising Committee Chair and Deputy Principal College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences (CAES), Assoc. Prof. Yazidhi Bamutaze and his Co-Chair Dr. Jerome Ssebaduka Lugimira from the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) noted that the 2024 Conference attracted participants from over 50 countries. Whereas the first edition of the conference in 2020 attracted 114 participants, the second edition in 2022 attracted 163 participants and this year’s attracted 375 abstract submissions.
The Conference featured twelve (12) themes namely: 1) Geographies of Climate Change, Climate Justice and Just Transition, Spaces and patterns; 2) Biodiversity Informatics, Sustainable Ecosystems, Landscapes and People; 3) Green Growth and Transitions to Land Degradation Neutrality and Net Zero; 4) Water Governance and Transitions to Land Degradation Neutrality and Net Zero; 5) Interconnected Geo-hazards and Disasters in a Changing World; 6) Polycrisis: Migration, Displacement, Conflict and Humanitarianism; 7) The changing Geography of Agrifood Systems; 8) Nature Best solutions for inclusive and equitable development; 9) Emerging and novel technologies for societal resilience; 10) Sustainable Cities and Urban Systems in SSA; 11) Geographies of Energy and Energy Transitions; and 12) Environment and Health.
“What is quite striking is that the area of Biodiversity Informatics, Sustainable Ecosystems, Landscapes and People attracted the highest number of submissions, and SDG 13: Climate action turned out to be the most attractive but, you also have issues to do with SDG 15: Life on Land and SDG 14: Life Below Water” Prof. Bamutaze reported.
He noted that the Conference was desirous of taking stock of technologies, knowledge, innovations and all undertakings at local levels that are imperative in ensuring that the journey to achieving SDGs prioritizes safety. Staying with the SDGs, Prof. Bamutaze noted that despite the large volume of work published by scientists, there was a big gap regarding the utility of this work by policies.
Prof. Bamutaze shared that the Conference was preceded by trainings on how to harness Artificial Intelligence in ongoing work on biodiversity, a Hackathon aimed at tapping into Earth Observation data, a Summer School on Community Resilience and Geo-visualization with field visits to the Mt. Elgon catchment area as well as trainings on scientific writing.
Co-creation key to Social Transformation
In his remarks, the Acting Vice Chancellor, Prof. Buyinza Mukadasi noted that the glaring sustainable development deficits call for accelerated actions from institutions in Africa, especially since the continent’s contribution to global knowledge output stands at less than 5%.
“We have an obligation to co-create knowledge tailored to environmental and social contexts that is actionable at scale; provide key evidence to policy makers and practitioners to enable them undertake grassroots actions and interventions; as well as co-create innovations that can catalyse social transformation” he shared.
Prof. Buyinza informed conference participants of Makerere’s continued investment in building partnerships that advance national and global sustainability, with specific focus on PhD training so as to improve annual knowledge output from Africa. “Under the African Research Universities Alliance (ARUA), we have defined core areas/disciplines in which we will collaboratively be churning out 1,000 PhDs annually.”
The Role of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) Systems
Addressing the conference, the Umukhukha Jude Mike Mudoma admitted that he was no stranger to academia, having been in research circles for the last 28 years as an environmental scientist. He therefore appreciated the opportunity to participate in the conference, especially at a time when the geographical area covered by his kingdom is in need of restoration to alleviate recurring natural disasters such as landslides.
The Umukhukha defined TEK as knowledge, beliefs and practices that indigenous people have developed over centuries to manage and conserve natural resources. “Our TEK is based on observations, experiments and spiritual connections with the natural world,” he noted, further adding “For example, our ancestors developed agroforestry systems that mimicked the natural forest ecosystem, promoting diversity and soil fertility.”
HRH Jude Mike Mudoma singled out rainwater harvesting techniques and extensive knowledge of medicinal plants that has been passed down through generations as other examples of TEK. He further outlined the Bamasaba Clan-based Governance that provides a framework for decision making, conflict resolution and resource management as well as the Council of Elders that provides guidance and oversight of matters related to natural resource management, cultural heritage and community development as traditional institutions that play vital roles in TEK. He equally singled out traditional ceremonies such as Imbalu (circumcision) as gatherings that promote cultural heritage and provide opportunities for community members to discuss pertinent issues.
“I want to implore you people that we should help our scientists to document and preserve our TEK for future generations” appealed the Umukhukha to conference participants. “Secondly I want support for community-led initiatives. The whole of Mt. Elgon range is now declared a disaster area because we ourselves have destroyed the environment and recently we lost over 190 people who were buried and we have only recovered 25” added H.R.H. Mudoma.
He further appealed to participants at the 3rd GORILLA Conference to support the Mt. Elgon region in areas of disaster risk reduction and management as well as environmental conservation and restoration. “Another area is climate change adaptation and mitigation and of course when these are done, we cannot forget community-based initiatives for sustainable livelihoods, which I have seen is part of your discussions here and I want to benefit from your expertise.”
Timing of 3rd GORILLA Conference Key
Following the moment of silence observed in respect of the recent Mt. Elgon landslide victims, the Chief Guest, Hon. Beatrice Atim Anywar lauded the timing of the conference as befitting, especially as it coincides with ongoing local, regional and global efforts to address pressing sustainability challenges and transitions towards a green world.
Referring to the 29th Annual United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP29) she attended in Baku, Azerbaijan, Hon. Anywar took note of the reinforced global climate action through an annual commitment of US$300billion in climate financing. The funding, she added, will help vulnerable nations adapt to climate change and embrace renewable energy.
“As we sit here, I want us to think, how can we prepare as a country for the carbon credit and carbon markets? It is a new discovery, it is a new source of financing, how prepared are we?” Hon. Anywar asked her audience. “How do we have it clearly explained to our people the difference and benefits between organic agriculture and genetically engineered agriculture?” she further added.
The State Minister further urged the academia to always ensure that the community is brought on board during events where research is being disseminated. “In order to benefit them, they must be part of us, and they must understand what we are doing; they shouldn’t be suspicious” she added.
Hon. Anywar concluded by urging participants at the 3rd GORILLA Conference to use the platform to together cultivate a cohesive knowledge ecosystem that drives forward Agenda 2030, “and this should include the Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) as stipulated by H.R.H. the Umukhukha” she emphasised.
Insight into Remote Sensing in Africa
The opening ceremony was followed by a Keynote Address delivered by Prof. Moses Azong Cho, Professor at the University of Pretoria and Chief Researcher at the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), South Africa. His presentation titled Managing Remote Sensing Technology for Assessing Biodiversity sought to describe biodiversity in the context of remote sensing, illustrate some of the work that has been done in the field, and touch on the new era of space borne remote sensing for biodiversity assessment.
“I tell you my African colleagues, if you think that remote sensing in Africa is simpler, you’re mistaken. You’re dealing with a more complex environment; forests are more diverse, savannah landscapes are very diverse and rural areas are quite heterogeneous – the mosaic of different landscape forms and types is crazy on the continent. So, we rather need more complicated remote sensing tools to be able to provide the kind of information that’s required on the continent” narrated Prof. Cho of his experience.
He equally urged scientists and their teams to mind the way they communicate with stakeholders when they take remote sensing products to the communities. “Try to understand the stakeholders and ensure that you will sit down and have the language to convince them what you’re offering can actually help them improve on their services and decision making.”
Prof. Cho who earlier described himself as a Bio-Geoinformatician; one who combines knowledge of Biology, Ecology, Geography, Remote Sensing, and Geographical Information Science to understand biodiversity and ecological phenomena, found himself gradually becoming an Agro-Geoinformatician. This was after their rich biodiversity information and data maps could hardly attract any funding despite the well-articulated need to conserve the environment.
“Our people are dying of hunger, we need to produce food” prospective funders would respond, later adding “and you are saying we should conserve the rich landscape, with 60% of fertile uncultivated land present on the continent of Africa?”
This light bulb moment from this response led to the development by Prof. Cho and his team, of systems that can enable farmers to effectively use small parcels of land to cultivate food, as opposed to nomadic farming whereby exhausted soils are abandoned for opening of previously uncultivated lands, often rich in biodiversity. Smart farming, digital farming, satellite farming, conservation farming and regenerative agriculture are names that have come to define these systems.
“Remote sensing can play a vital role in these systems and so we actually changed the name of our research group from Earth Observation Group to Precision Agriculture Research Group and suddenly, we started getting lots of traction with both Government and Private Sector because we packaged the information that we generate using our remote sensing models into a software called the Precision Agriculture Information System” Prof. Cho shared.
The software enables farmers to access information on soil conditions and the health of their crops on a weekly basis. “We have developed models that can very accurately predict soil organic content, soil nitrogen content, pH of the soil, and soil moisture, because we have taken time to interpret the spectral information” Prof. Cho triumphantly shared.
On the new era of space borne remote sensing that is upon us, Prof. Cho shared that this will provide even higher resolution imagery that can monitor crop stress and relatedly, the impacts of climate change on ecosystems. “NASA is working on new programmes; there’s the PANGEA programme, where I am a Committee Member, where we want to deploy these new sensors within tropical forests in Congo, Cameroon and Ghana to see how we can assess tropical forest biodiversity and change with respect to global changes.”
Furthermore, developments such as the new synthetic radar signal that is not sensitive to clouds enables acquisition of reflected microwave energy both during the day and night, which is critical for the humid tropical regions that experience a lot of cloud cover.
“We need to prepare so that we are not left behind, particularly those of us on the African continent. We need to develop our infrastructure, and cloud computing platforms. We need to develop the capacity amongst our youth when it comes to big data analytics” concluded Prof. Cho.
Summing it all up
The captivating keynote address was followed by a panel discussion that debated; what academia is doing to ensure that it breaks free from the “Ivory Tower” mentality, and how academia and research institutions can contribute to processes that lead to the attainment of SDGs. Furthermore, the panel discussed; what universities can learn from Civil Society Organisations (CSOs), what CSOs can do to support Government’s drive to achieve SDGs, and the communities’ experience of progress made on SDG3: Good Health and Wellbeing, SDG6: Clean Water and Sanitation, and SDG13: Climate Action.
Panelists included Assoc. Prof. Justine Namaalwa- Head Department of Environment Management, CAES, Mr. Ronald Kaggwa-National Planning Authority (NPA), Ms. Pauline Nantongo Kalunda- Executive Director ECOTRUST – the Environmental Conservation Trust of Uganda, Dr. Harriet Rachel Kagoya- Director of Operations Uganda Red Cross Society (URCS) and Mr. Moses Nadiope-Chairman/Coordinator Kasubi Parish Local Community Development Initiative.
To learn more about the GORILLA Conference, please visit: https://gorilla.mak.ac.ug
Working with potential future employers of PhD students in Kenya and Uganda, Advancing Sustainable Agricultural Value Chains through Strengthening Trans-disciplinary Skills and Cooperation in East African Doctoral Education (ADVALUE) Project aims to develop curricula that best prepare academic specialists in agricultural sciences for their careers.
Overview
The lack of skills-oriented training significantly undermines the relevance of doctoral graduates in today’s rapidly evolving job market, particularly within industries such as agriculture, where practical expertise and adaptability are essential. While doctoral programmes traditionally emphasize research and theoretical knowledge, they often fail to equip graduates with the hands-on, industry-specific skills needed to address real-world challenges. In agricultural value chains, for instance, the ability to apply advanced research to optimize production, supply chain management, sustainability practices, and technological advancements is crucial. Without a strong foundation in these practical areas, doctoral graduates may struggle to effectively contribute to innovation and efficiency in agricultural systems. From improving crop yields through data analysis to enhancing logistics and distribution methods, agricultural value chains require professionals who can seamlessly integrate research with practical application.
What the ADVALUE Project targets to address
Co-funded by the European Union, the ADVALUE Project—Advancing Sustainable Agricultural Value Chains through Strengthening Trans-disciplinary Skills and Cooperation in East African Doctoral Education—seeks to modernize doctoral education in agricultural and agro-environmental sciences at universities in Uganda and Kenya. This initiative aims to enhance trans-disciplinary skills to promote the development of sustainable agricultural value chains, addressing pressing challenges such as food insecurity, unemployment, and climate change.
Project partners include; Nuertingen-Geislingen University, Germany (NGU); German Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture (DITSL); Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (CZU); Swedish University of Agricultural Science (SLU); Makerere University, Uganda; Uganda Christian University (UCU); University of Nairobi, Kenya (UoN); Pwani University Kenya (PU); Regional Universities Forum for Capacity Building in Agriculture, Uganda (RUFORUM). Associated Partners: European Alliance in Agricultural Knowledge for Development, Belgium (AGRINATURA); National Agricultural Research Organization, Uganda (NARO); National Council of Higher Education, Uganda (NCHE); Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organisation (KALRO); Ministry of Education Science and Technology Kenya (MoEST). The project PI is Prof. Dr. Heinrich Schüle. In Uganda, the project is coordinated by Prof. John Tabuti.
Project objectives
- Develop innovative courses on trans-disciplinary research methodologies and value chain analysis within doctoral programmes.
- Strengthen collaboration with key stakeholders to ensure research is demand-driven and fosters innovation.
- Enhance the expertise of both academic staff and doctoral students.
- Improve quality assurance frameworks and development processes in doctoral education.
To achieve these goals, ADVALUE is developing four modules for PhD students that will be integrated into the curricula of the partner universities in Kenya and Uganda, taking into account the experiences and expectations of local stakeholders and potential future employers. The modules will include topics on scientific work, trans-disciplinary research, rangeland management, and agricultural value chains. The collaboration and exchange between the universities and representatives from the working environment, government organisations and international partners aims to strengthen the career prospects of postgraduate students in East Africa and promote their expertise with regard to the local requirements for achieving the SDGs.
The ADVALUE interim conference
The project team held an interim conference at Makerere University on 17th-19th March 2025 to evaluate the state of PhD education in agriculture, incorporating diverse insights from both European and East African perspectives. The conference brought together academic staff, students, and leaders from partner institutions, associated organizations, and key stakeholders in the Agricultural sector.
The conference aimed to highlight the progress and findings of the project, offering a platform for discussing PhD research on agricultural value chains within higher education institutions (HEIs). A key focus was on trans-disciplinary approaches, as well as fostering dialogue on quality criteria for PhD programs. Additionally, the event served as a formal meeting for the project’s Steering Committee and provided an opportunity for partners to refine their assessments of doctoral education in line with established quality standards and institutional contexts.
Presentation by Mr. Joseph Nkandu on the Agricultural Value Chains in E.A
In his address on the sustainability of agricultural value chains in East Africa, Mr. Joseph Nkandu, Executive Director of NUCAFE (Uganda’s national umbrella organization for coffee farmers), emphasized the vital role that higher education plays in strengthening and advancing agricultural value chains. He stressed the importance of aligning education with the region’s broader development goals to ensure that future generations of agricultural professionals are equipped with the necessary skills for sustainable growth. “Education must become more practical and closely integrated with the region’s development objectives,” he noted. He praised the initiative, noting that the project would greatly enhance doctoral training at partner institutions, empowering students with advanced knowledge and skills to support and sustain agricultural value chains across East Africa. “The sustainability of Africa’s value chains is essential if we are to meet the demands of the growing population,” he added.
Uganda’s agricultural value chains are a cornerstone of its economy. However, several challenges threaten their sustainability, including climate change, which affects crop yields and water availability; inadequate infrastructure, which hinders market access; limited access to finance for smallholder farmers; land degradation; and insufficient technology adoption. Moreover, pest outbreaks and post-harvest losses further undermine the efficiency and profitability of agricultural systems. Tackling these challenges is essential to improving the sustainability and resilience of Uganda’s agricultural sector.
Remarks from NCHE
In her remarks, Prof. Mary Okwakol, the Executive Director of the National Council for Higher Education, emphasized the critical role of doctoral training in driving societal progress. She explained that advanced research and innovation resulting from doctoral programmes not only contribute to academic advancement but also pave the way for ground-breaking discoveries. “These discoveries, in turn, play a pivotal role in shaping and transforming nation-states by addressing pressing challenges, fostering economic growth, and improving the quality of life for communities.” Prof. Okwakol called for continued investment in doctoral education to harness its potential for national development and global competitiveness.
Highlighting the challenges related to Doctoral training, the Deputy Principal of CAES, Prof. Yazidhi Bamutaze, noted that the project was timely and would greatly strengthen the research capabilities of doctoral students, ensuring that their skills are more aligned with current academic and industry needs, ultimately improving the overall relevance and impact of their research outputs. “As Makerere University strives to become a research-intensive institution, the importance of collaboration cannot be overstated. This project will make a substantial contribution to this goal.”
Engagement with smallholder farmer in Matugga
During the conference, the project team had the opportunity to visit the farm of Mr. Sam Mpiira, a dedicated smallholder farmer located in Matugga, within Nansana Municipality. The visit allowed the team to gain first-hand insight into Mr. Mpiira’s farming practices, observe the challenges he faces, and better understand the impact of various agricultural initiatives in the region. This experience was an important part of the conference, as it provided a real-world context to the discussions on smallholder farming and rural development.
Key Issues Arising from the Workshop
- Overemphasis on theoretical science: While science is extensively studied, its practical application remains problematic.
- Outdated supervision: Many PhD supervisors are not up-to-date with current research trends. There is a need for educational frameworks that align with the latest development agendas.
- Technician mentality among graduates: A significant number of PhD graduates tend to think like technicians rather than innovators. Many struggle to apply the knowledge they’ve acquired and lack the ability to think creatively.
- Lack of innovation: There is a notable absence of innovation among doctoral graduates, which hinders progress.
- Evolving skillsets in value chains: There is an urgent need to address the changing skillsets required across different value chains.
- Unrealistic PhD programme durations: The prescribed durations for PhD programmes are often unrealistic and fail to reflect the complexity of the research process.
- Competing priorities: The multiple demands on students’ time hinder their ability to complete doctoral studies in time.
- Financial barriers: Limited funding continues to undermine the success and sustainability of doctoral training programmes.
- Lack of student commitment: Some doctoral students exhibit a lack of commitment and dedication to their studies, impacting their success.
- Negative student attitudes: Students often display an underestimation of the role and guidance of their supervisors, which affects their academic progress.
- Inadequate research facilities: Limited access to essential research facilities hampers the quality of doctoral research.
- Weak analytical skills: Many doctoral students lack the necessary analytical skills to perform at the required level of their academic discipline.
- Gender-based challenges: Gender roles negatively impact the performance and progression of female doctoral students, limiting their academic potential.
- Supervisory workload: Excessive workload on supervisors affects the quality and effectiveness of their mentorship.
- Need for relearning in value chains: Achieving sustainability in value chains demands continuous relearning and adaptation.
Recommendations
- Dedicated study leave: Doctoral students should be granted leave from other responsibilities to focus fully on their research.
- Creating research spaces: Institutions must create dedicated, conducive workspaces for doctoral students to foster collaboration and focus.
- Increase funding opportunities: More scholarships and financial support should be made available to PhD students to ease financial barriers.
- Research-oriented supervision: Supervisors must establish and maintain active research agendas to ensure they remain relevant and effective in guiding students.
- Strengthen institutional collaboration: Encouraging greater collaboration between Higher Education Institutions can foster exchange of ideas and resources to enhance doctoral research outcomes.
Photos from conference activities
More photos at:
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1cZwlLXt5YBWoeMfO0wVbdva0NLIQ5sHr
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/107GJR6nCZJwKjmfrwveGXw7As2AhAQWt
Agriculture & Environment
Mak Launches Urban Futures Project, Unveils Handbook on Urban Heat Management
“Toward health equity, inclusive governance, and climate adaptation in African Informal Settlements”
Makerere University, in collaboration with the University of Waterloo and the University of Manchester, on 6th March launched a new project titled: The Urban Futures Project: Toward Health Equity, Inclusive Governance and Climate Adaptation in African Informal Settlements, and Urban Heat Risk Awareness Raising and Knowledge Exchange. The Urban Futures project is the first learning lab initiated to foster collaboration, knowledge exchange amongst the various stakeholders and inclusive decision-making process that addresses complex challenges faced by informal settlements in Kampala.
Project Partners: Makerere University, University of Waterloo and the University of Manchester, Institute of Development Studies, Sierra Leon Research Centre, Training and Research Support Centre, Government of Uganda, Kampala Capital City Authority, Act Together Uganda, and Focus for Life Development Link.
Unveiling the Urban Heat Management Handbook
During the launch event at Fairway Hotel in Kampala, the Urban Heat Management Handbook was unveiled to help raise awareness and promote knowledge exchange on heat stress. The handbook covers critical topics such as understanding heat resilience, assessing heat risk, planning for heat resilience, responding to heat waves, and providing solutions for heat resilience.
The Urban Futures project will highlight the multifaceted risks faced by informal residents and workers, aiming to create South-South learning opportunities to address these inequitable threats. The study will focus on vulnerable populations in informal settlements and workers, seeking to identify equitable adaptation pathways to address climate risks that exacerbate health disparities.
Project Approach
The project will adopt a collaborative approach involving diverse stakeholders, focusing on developing health adaptation strategies, building resilience, and fostering growth through knowledge co-generation, continuous learning, evaluation, and improvement. The research will be conducted in three large African cities on the frontlines of climate change: Kampala (Uganda), Freetown (Sierra Leone), and Bulawayo (Zimbabwe). Through interdisciplinary and participatory methods, the study will gather evidence on how climate-related risks impact the daily lives of residents and workers in these areas.
Key Remarks
In his opening remarks, Dr. Paul Mukwaya, Head of the Department of Geography, Geo-informatics, and Climatic Sciences, described the learning lab as an essential space for dialogue among stakeholders in informal settlements. “The Urban Action Lab is our space to discuss urban development challenges together as a community, to find effective solutions,” he said.
Ms. Anita Kusiima, representing the Executive Director of Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA), spoke about the challenges posed by attitudes toward enforcement. “KCCA has initiated strategies like greening, skilling, and livelihood programs. However, we struggle with enforcement. Until statistics like these are shared with communities, people don’t realize how much we are destroying our environment. It’s common to wake up and find over 40 trees have been cut down overnight. In places like Nakasero, many trees are cut during the night. As a country and a city, we face not only poor attitudes toward the law but also towards the quality of life we want to achieve,” she said. “Urban farming has seen success at the household level, greening has been effective, and school programs aimed at raising awareness have also been successful.”
Dr. Robbinson Kabanda, a Veterinary Doctor at KCCA, emphasized the learning lab’s potential in addressing issues such as budget cuts and the impacts of climate change on Kampala. “With budget cuts affecting many funded activities, this is a great opportunity for Kampala, where the majority live in informal settlements and are especially vulnerable to climate change,” he said. “These collaborative spaces foster innovation and experimentation in urban contexts, bringing together various stakeholders and practitioners to address complex urban challenges through shared learning.”
Mr. Hakimu Ssevviiri, from the Research Urban Action Lab, highlighted the power of the urban learning lab in addressing urban challenges through collaboration, innovation, and community engagement. He emphasized the importance of urban resilience, improved decision-making, and public involvement.
Issues highlighted at the Launch
- There is a critical need for timely interventions to address heat stress and other challenges facing informal settlements.
- Informal settlements lack sufficient space for tree planting.
- Trees take time to mature, making them a long-term solution.
- Reducing electricity costs and improving water access are immediate priorities.
- Solar energy use is vital for reducing heat stress, particularly in households.
- Strong government policies on heat stress, such as promoting the use of mosquito nets, are essential.
- Wetland degradation and tree clearance are major contributors to heat stress.
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