Nearly half of Uganda’s prison population has latent tuberculosis (TB), according to the latest Uganda National Prevalence Survey on Tuberculosis, HIV, and COVID-19. The survey, released on May 15, 2025, found that active TB cases in prisons stand at 1,900 per 100,000—eight times higher than in the general population.

The survey was conducted by Makerere University School of Public Health (MakSPH) in conjunction with the Uganda Prisons Services (UPS) and the Ministry of Health—with funding from the U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) and technical support from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and prevention (CDC)—and purposed to have a more profound understanding of TB to help inform public health programs for this high-risk population.

Dr. Simon Kasasa, a Senior Lecturer at MakSPH and Principal Investigator of this study, stressed that “staying for a longer duration, three years and above, posed a greater risk to TB infection in prison.” He also noted TB infection was much higher among male prisoners (48%) compared to female prisoners (38%) and among those of older age, 65 years and above. Meanwhile, the report noted concerns about excessive numbers in prisons as a key risk factor for TB transmission.

UPS consists of 257 prisons spread over 16 administrative regions with an average prisoner population of 56,400 (95% male), accommodation capacity of 16,612 (340%), and 9,904 staff (29% female).

HIV prevalence among prisoners was also alarmingly high at 11%, twice that of the general population. Notably, female persons in prison (PIP) had the highest HIV rates at 21%, compared to 11% for male PIP and just 2% among prison staff. However, the data also showed a significant drop in overall HIV prevalence within prisons, falling from 15% in 2013 to 11% in 2023, with the most dramatic decline among staff, from 12% to 2%.

Dr. George Tumusinze, a Program Manager and Research Associate, pointed out that although 92% of people with HIV in prisons know their status and 99% are receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART), only 70% have successfully reduced the virus in their bodies, highlighting important issues with how well the treatment is working.

Mr. Samuel Akena, the Deputy Commissioner General of Prisons, echoed these concerns by stating that the survey represents a significant milestone for the Prisons, not only in terms of data collection but also in Uganda’s journey towards achieving equity, justice, and the right to health for all. “This survey is historic. It represents one of the most comprehensive efforts to understand the health status of people in prisons in Uganda.” He emphasized the necessity of a collective and bold response, urging that “the time for piecemeal responses is over.”

Dr. Charles Olaro, Director General of Health Services at the Ministry of Health, emphasized the urgency of the situation, stating, “As we gather today to reflect on the findings of this important survey, we must recognize the urgent need for action in our fight against tuberculosis (TB) in Uganda. Despite our efforts, we are still grappling with the burden of this disease, and our progress toward eliminating it by 2030 has not been as swift as we had hoped.” He pointed out that the survey serves as a critical baseline that will shape future responses and guide resource allocation.

HIV prevalence among prison staff members was the lowest, at just 2%, reflecting a significant achievement in workplace health. Dr. Daniel Byamukama, Head of HIV Prevention at the Uganda AIDS Commission, praised prison authorities for their efforts, noting the remarkable progress over the past decade. In the first survey in 2013, only 34% of HIV-positive staff on treatment had achieved viral load suppression. Today, that figure has reached an impressive 100%, underscoring the impact of sustained prevention and care efforts.

While the prison HIV program has shown effectiveness—evidenced by a drop in prevalence from 15% to 11% among the prisoners over the past decade—Mr. Akena stressed the importance of prioritizing gender-responsive strategies in health interventions.

“Diseases do not recognize bars or borders. They thrive in environments where conditions are poor and resources are scarce. Women in prison face disproportionately higher risks, yet often remain invisible in program planning. This is not acceptable. If we are serious about health equity, we must prioritize gender-responsive strategies — within prison health systems and beyond,” Mr. Akena.

CDC Uganda Director Dr. Adetinuke (Mary) Boyd reinforced the significance of the survey in addressing public health risks. “In Uganda, CDC partners are helping to ensure inmates stay healthy during custody. This work facilitates safe reintegration into their communities, mitigates disease transmission to the general population, and reduces public health risks like untreated TB,” she stated. Dr. Boyd highlighted the role of PEPFAR in tackling critical global health threats, asserting that the survey offers helpful data for enhancing health collaboration within this vulnerable population.

The U.S. CDC has been supporting Uganda Prisons Services to provide comprehensive HIV/AIDS, STI, and TB prevention, care, and treatment services for the last 15 years (2010–2025), totaling over $18,046,263 in investment—including $550,000 to this study alone, through the Makerere University School of Public Health. The program supports capacity building, scale-up, and health system strengthening efforts in HIV/TB testing, care, and support for prisoners and prison staff, plus surrounding communities.

With 80% of prison wards overcrowded and 95% lacking adequate natural ventilation, the conditions in which these individuals live exacerbate the spread of infectious diseases, public health specialists have warned. This survey underlines the urgent need for systemic changes within the prison health system, as well as a commitment to uphold the rights and health of all individuals, regardless of their circumstances.

As Uganda grapples with these alarming statistics, the call to action is clear. Stakeholders must come together to implement effective health interventions, improve screening and treatment protocols, and ensure that the rights of incarcerated individuals are respected. The health of the general population is inextricably linked to the health of those within prison walls, and addressing these challenges is not just a moral imperative but a public health necessity.

Professor Rhoda Wanyenze, one of the investigators and Dean of the School of Public Health, asserts that the Survey findings are a wake-up call for stakeholders to prioritize health equity and justice for society’s most vulnerable members.

Prof. Wanyenze advocated for improved TB screening methods and institutionalization of regular mass TB screening using the WHO-recommended advanced diagnostic tools like digital chest X-rays with Computer-Aided Detection (CAD), as well as molecular diagnostics like GeneXpert and TB LAM, noting that traditional symptom-based screening missed nearly half of TB cases. “The use of molecular diagnostics like GeneXpert significantly improved case detection in our study,” she added, emphasizing the importance of timely diagnosis and treatment.

Uganda Prisons Service, in partnership with the Ministry of Health, has so far installed 14 GeneXpert machines in medium- to high-volume prison health facilities.

While some, including Members of Parliament, have raised concerns about the potential infringement on individual rights through mandatory TB testing in prisons, Dr. James Kisambu, the Commissioner for Prison Health Services, noted that it is now apparent, with these findings, for everyone to appreciate that in such confined settings, the risk of transmission is extraordinarily high. TB testing in these settings is not just a medical practice but also a crucial public health precaution that protects both prisoners and the wider community.

“Prisons are high-risk, high-transmission environments where one undetected case can rapidly escalate into an outbreak. In such settings, the right to refuse testing must be weighed against the right of others to be protected from infection. Mandatory TB screening, when done with dignity and linked to prompt treatment, is not a violation of rights — it is an essential public health measure to protect both people in prison and the communities they return to,” said Dr. James Kisambu.

The researchers from MakSPH were; Dr. Simon Kasasa, Associate Professor Esther Buregyeya, Dr. George Tumusinze, Dr. Simon Walusimbi, Dr. Dick Kasozi, Dr. Ronald Senyonga, John Baptist Bwanika, Prossy Nabaterega and Professor Rhoda Wanyenze.

Additionally, the study team from the Uganda Prisons Service comprised of Dr. Leonard Marungu, Charles Butagasa, Dr. James Kisambu and Dr. Johnson Byabashaiza, the Commissioner General of Prisons.

Finally, Dr. Deus Lukoye, Dr. Julius Ssempiira, Charles Kavuma, Rise Nakityo, Samuel Sendagala, Grace Nantege, Lisa Mills, Dr. Lisa Nelson, Kenneth Mwambi from U.S. CDC Uganda/Atlanta and PEPFAR USG agencies, and George William Kasule, Didas Tugumisirize, Dr. Simon Muchuro, Professor Moses Joloba, Dr. Turyahabwe Stavia from the Uganda Ministry of Health National TB and Leprosy Program (NTLP) completed the team.

View on MakSPH

Dear esteemed reader,

I bring you warm greetings from the RUFORUM Secretariat, here in Kampala, Uganda. The year 2024 marked a milestone in RUFORUM’s journey of contributing towards enhancing our continent’s development leveraging on our natural strength of agriculture and allied sub-sectors of the economy. At 20 years of age, RUFORUM remains focused on its core mission of enabling Africa University effectively and efficiently generate relevant solutions to underpin the continent’s transformative development aspirations. In this issue, I am pleased to provide you with an overview of RUFORUM’s journey during the past two decades as we celebrate its 20th anniversary. While doing so, I found it crucial to look retrospectively from the perspectives of the FORUM on Agriculture Resource Husbandry (alias FORUM), RUFORUM’s predecessor; the past two decades of RUFORUM, and to look at the future of Africa’s Agricultural transformation, economic growth and higher agricultural education.

The Forum for Agricultural Resource Husbandry – FORUM

FORUM was a capacity development program established in 1992 by the Rockefeller Foundation that was implemented in five countries (Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Uganda and Zimbabwe), Foundation’s focus countries’ at the time. The countries faced unique as well as shared challenges and opportunities at that time. Uganda and Mozambique had just emerged from conflict, whilst Kenya, was expanding its university education to meet the growing demand, while Zimbabwe was a young country post independence. All these countries had also been affected by the effects of macroeconomic structural adjustment programming that had limited funding for university education especially, post-graduate education. The FORUM initiative initially focused on crop sciences gradually expanding to other disciplines of agriculture. At inception FORUM’s programmes aimed “to build national and local capacity in crop management research with capability to develop alternative management-variety-resource combinations, soil fertility and biological practices, agroforestry technologies, pest management approaches and related crop management techniques; and evaluate the biological, economic and ecological effects”. FORUM was implemented through competitive grants to support student training at the master’s degree level. To deliver on its mission, FORUM utilized interdisciplinary, participatory and system-level approaches and worked with stakeholders beyond universities including agricultural research institutes, civil society, private sector and smallholder farmers. The FORUM Secretariat was initially headquartered in Lilongwe, Malawi and later relocated to Nairobi, Kenya.

Achievements of the FORUM that underpin RUFORUM

1. Institutional strengthening
   • FORUM helped stabilize colleges, faculties and schools of agriculture in Kenya, Malawi,
     Mozambique, Uganda, and Zimbabwe by providing resources, mission and peer support, during and after the structural adjustment programmes. It also contributed to staff retention in the participating universities and built their capacity for research, student supervision, scholarly and policy works.
   • The program contributed to institutional development by creating high quality graduate training programmes whose research agenda directly addressed problems facing smallholder based agriculture.
2. Enhancing networking and engagement with other ecosystem actors
   • FORUM actions catalyzed collaboration among universities and with other education and
     research for development actors including a broad range of farmers. This enhanced relevance and contribution of University led research and training to national development.
   • Over its life FORUM enabled the creation and nurture of an Africa Institution for the benefit of
     Africa. This resulted in building the capacity of institutions and individuals that have progressively contributed to the continent’s economic growth.
3. Science solutions for development
   • FORUM strengthened the contribution of its members to knowledge generation, one hundred
     twenty three publications done in international and regional peer reviewed journals. The
     publications covered crop improvement, plant protection, soil sciences, economics and social
     sciences.
   • Scientists supported by the productivity enhancing technologies such as improved bean and
     soybean and cowpea varieties, a highly effective seed-dressing innovation for the control of bean fly, a soil fertility improvement technology called ‘Prep-Pac’ that combines a slow release rock phosphate, a nitrogen source (urea) and an inoculant.
4. Training the next generation of scientists:
   • There was significant improvement in the completion rate of graduate level training reducing the completion time from 4-7 to 2 years as required in masters degrees by course work and research.
   • One hundred eighty eight (188) students were trained in east and southern Africa.
   • Twenty-three percent of the graduates enrolled in a PhD program while 54% were employed,
     presumably, often because of contacts/relationships they developed during their training.

From FORUM to RUFORUM

After a decade of implementation (1992 – 2002), the Rockefeller Foundation supported the creation of an African led and owned organization that was called, “ The Regional Universities Forum For Capacity Building in Agriculture-(RUFORUM). RUFORUM thus naturally became the successor of The Foundation’s investments for building the Capacity of African Universities to effectively engage in growth of the continent’s Agriculture sector. It initially, focused on Eastern and Southern Africa as its zone of influence before growing to become a continent wide agency that it is today. The new RUFORUM Secretariat was established in Kampala, Uganda hosted by the Government via Makerere University, one of its founder members following a successful bidding by Uganda through Makerere University.

The RUFORUM’s first decade journey (2004 – 2014)

The first decade focused on consolidation of FORUM achievements and expansion both sub-regionally and continentally. The growth was guided by a new strategic plan underpinned by a new vision of “Vibrant agricultural innovation systems with fully integrated universities that play a leading role in nurturing the systems through high-performing agricultural science graduates who are innovative and responsive to changing demands”. The RUFORUM network grew to include 32 universities from its initial ten members in 2004 drawing membership from three regions of Africa (Eastern, Central and Southern Africa). It expanded the scope of operations, to include PhD training as well as institutional and leadership strengthening. RUFORUM maintained most of FORUM training, networking and scaling agenda involving principal investigators, students, academic leaders (Principals and Deans), as well as collaboration with non-university stakeholders. New governance organs were created to stabilize the organization and strategic partnership forged. Consequently by the end of the first decade, RUFORUM had emerged as a key continental agency in capacity building for agriculture and policy information that it still is today. The new regional PhD and master’s degree programmes that focused on emergent areas, catalyzed the resurgence of African University in development processes and practice.

RUFORUM’s second decade (2014 – 2024)

The second decade journey saw a steady growth in both scale and scope. The network’s operations expanded to cover all university training programmes, i.e. Bachelors, Masters and doctoral degree. To address the question of a rebalanced human resource pyramid, work transitions for fresh graduates and gender and diversity asymmetry, especially of underserved demographics, RUFORUM expanded its scope of actions to include Technical, Vocational, Education and Training (TVET), entrepreneurship, gender and inclusion, and future of work activities. Science was strengthened by the introduction of post-doctoral training. The new thrust required expansion of the stakeholder ecosystem to include farming communities, private sector and partners in the Global North and Global South. By December 2024, the network had 175 member universities in 40 of Africa’s 55 countries from all five geographic regions of Africa. To strengthen service delivery and relevance, RUFORUM board in 2021 created two regional hubs (for Western and Southern Africa), eastern Africa and other regions being served through the Secretariat.

At continental level, in 2014, RUFORUM signed a cooperation agreement with the African Union Commission (AUC) to support implementation of the Science, Technology and Innovation Strategy for Africa (STISA, 2024). It also entered various memoranda with key continental agencies in the global north and south respectively, during the same period. In 2024, an MoU with the AUC’s Department of Agriculture, Rural Development, Blue Economy and Sustainable Environment (ARBE) to support its agricultural growth and transformation flagship programs was signed.

During its second decade, RUFORUM implemented its first operational plan (2018 – 2022) that was aligned to regional policy development frameworks such as Agenda 2063 – The Africa We Want of AUC, “The Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP), Malabo Declaration, the Continental Education Strategy (CESA), the Continental Strategy for Technical and Vocational Educational and Training (TVET), and the Science Agenda for Agriculture in Africa (S3A); among others. RUFORUM’s operations were framed by its continental strategy, Vision 2030 that leverages on the continent’s higher education and agriculture ecosystems to create and unlock opportunities for wealth and jobs especially for young people. During the same period, RUFORUM in partnership with the Mastercard Foundation launched the flagship program “Transforming African Agricultural Universities for Africa’s Growth and Development” (TAGDev Phase 1 (2016 – 2024) now in its second phase (2024 – 2034). TAGDEv aims to transform African agricultural universities and their graduates to better respond to developmental challenges through enhanced application of science, technology, business and innovation for rural agricultural transformation.

Distinguished reader, during the second decade RUFORUM intensified its partnerships with the European Union Universities and within the continent implementing academic mobility that enabled staff and student exchange including 67 academic staff across disciplines; implementing user centered initiatives for students and agriculture value chain actors such as Community Action Research projects (CARP), and CARP+ (involving TVET), and the RUFORUM entrepreneurship challenge program (RECAP) to scale out best practices. RECAPs were implemented at over 20 other universities within the network. Member university academic staff and students also benefited from RUFORUM’s skills enhancement in community engagement, online resource use, work preparedness, entrepreneurship, scientific writing, and data management.

The RUFORUM’s Third decade journey (2024 – 2034): Looking into the future

RUFORUM begins its third decade amidst a number of major continental and global underpinnings such as the Second Ten Year Implementation plan (STYIP) of the African Union Agenda 2063, The Kampala declaration for implementation of the Comprehensive Africa’s Agriculture Development Program; The Science, Technology and Innovation Strategy for Africa, The Continental Education Strategy for Africa and several refreshed national and continental development blueprints among others. These policy instruments all point to a shared vision of a continental set to reap from its young population and endowments for its development. Pivotal to achievement of these aspirations is the need for a strong human capital base. Indeed the STYIP has already set a plan of training 100,000 PhD level scientists over this decade many of whom must be within the Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEMs). The network certainly has a crucial role to play in that regard and has aligned its operational plan to deliver on some of these policy instruments.

A common thread running through many of the national to regional and global policy instruments is the role of science and innovation in generating solutions. Accordingly, during its third decade, RUFORUM will leverage its vast network to engage education and agriculture ecosystems actors in science for development actions. Last mile science and technology delivery mechanisms will be strengthened at country (National FORUMs) to sub-regional levels (Regional hubs), existing partnerships strengthened while new partnerships forged to serve our network in mission delivery. We shall continue to implement our transformative education agenda, cognisant of fourth industrial revolution technologies and opportunities that integrate the digital, biological, and physical sectors of the economy. We will strive to close the gender and diversity gap in our operations and enhance future of work skills development. RUFORUM will remain resolute in its mission to supporting transitions to resilient economies.

In conclusion, as we navigate through the challenges of the third decade journey, I wish to reiterate our deepest acknowledgement to all our partners and governments who continue to walk this journey with us. To the Secretariat staff, our board members and members of all RUFORUM Governance Organs and all others who supported us through this 20 year long journey, I extend my deepest appreciations and wish everyone a happy and prosperous New Year 2025.

Thank you.

Prof. Patrick Okori
Executive Secretary

View Newsletter on RUFORUM

The TUM SEED Center @ MAK hosted by the School of Engineering invites applications from suitable candidates from the Global South for a PhD Scholarship in Sustainable Energy Entrepreneurship for the 2025/2026 Academic Year at Makerere University. The scholarship is jointly coordinated by the College of Business and Management Sciences (CoBAMS) and the College of Engineering, Design, Art and Technology (CEDAT).

This PhD scholarship is part of a partnership between Makerere University and the Technical University of Munich (TUM) under the TUM SEED Center that aims to shape the future leaders of academia. Tailored to foster cutting-edge research and inventive thinking in advancing sustainable energy and entrepreneurship, the TUM SEED Center offers higher education and conducts research at the intersection of Sustainable Energies, Entrepreneurship and Development (SEED). We advocate for interdisciplinary and global cooperation, transcending conventional limits to explore the fusion of sustainable energy and entrepreneurial practices.

About the TUM SEED Center @ MAK and PhD Scholarship

As part of the SEED network, the TUM SEED Center @ MAK has secured funding for the second phase for 2025-2029. The SEED network consists of the Technical University of Munich (TUM) and ten universities across the Global South, including Makerere University (Uganda), Bahir Dar University (Ethiopia), Bandung Institute of Technology (Indonesia), Burkina Institute of Technology (Burkina Faso), Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (Ghana), Indian Institute of Technology Bombay (India), Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (Kenya), Namibia University of Science and Technology (Namibia), Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú (Peru), and Stellenbosch University (South Africa). The TUM SEED Center is funded by DAAD and the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development.

The TUM SEED Center focuses on building Living Labs in communities without electricity and initiating collaborative research and teaching in the areas of Sustainable energy and entrepreneurship by integrating communities in the co-creation, testing, validation, and further development of new or improved technologies that do not create discontinuities in their settings.

As such, the TUM-MAK SEED Living lab was developed in 2021. The lab is a life-scale mini grid set up in Kyampisi village in Luwero District, Uganda. It is situated in a community of about 1,000 residents living in a clustered agricultural community. The living lab provides a platform for students from Makerere and partner universities to interact with the communities to understand energy, entrepreneurship and development challenges, bringing forth actionable and impactful research that directly addresses the community needs in the hope of improving their livelihoods.

Another key component to the TUM SEED Center is the Student Initiatives activities that are geared to enhance decentralized governance structure by exemplifying a bottom-up approach. By creating initiatives, students influence decision-making at their universities and advance the TUM SEED Center’s agenda. This involvement ensures student perspectives are integrated into the governance process, driving entrepreneurial sustainable energy solutions forward.

This announcement invites PhD Applicants from the Global South with excellent academic track records and strong motivation to apply for a doctoral scholarship in Sustainable Energy Entrepreneurship to be hosted at Makerere University. The doctoral scholarship will focus on scaling and impact of sustainable enterprises in the context of the mini-grid sector, contributing to SDG 7, Clean and Affordable Energy for All by 2030. The selected doctoral scholar will be supervised by faculty members from Makerere University, Dr. Kasimu Sendawula from the School of Business (CoBAMS) and Dr. Francis Mujjuni from the School of Engineering, and co supervised by Prof. Dr. Frank-Martin Belz, Director of the TUM SEED Center.

SEED doctoral scholars are expected to:

• Demonstrate a strong commitment to the work as a doctoral student
• Participate and contribute to the activities of the TUM-MAK SEED Center
• Take on responsibilities of coordinating the Student Initiatives
• Engage in academic exchange (i.e., visit and collaborate with partner universities)
• Conduct research inline with the needs of the local energy Living-lab at Kyampisi
• Submit progress reports as required by the TUM SEED Center and by Makerere University
• Complete studies within stipulated scholarship period, otherwise failure to do so without
  sound reasons a refund may be demanded

Application Procedure

To apply, please upload your CV, a strong letter of motivation, two reference letters, national identity card, and academic certificates and transcripts through the online application form at https://wkf.ms/3XFUwhw by Thursday 12 June 2025 at 23:59 EAT. Based on the applications, some candidates will be invited for an online interview and submission of a research concept note.

Qualified women and individuals with disabilities are particularly encouraged to apply. The Selection Commission of the TUM SEED Center will make the final decision in line with DAAD criteria.

Eligibility for the Scholarship

Following are the application requirements for this scholarship:

• Bachelor’s degree with a minimum of an Upper Second Class or its equivalent in business
  management (with a focus on entrepreneurship) or related fields
• Master’s degree with Merit (or above as may be applicable) in sustainable energies,
  business management (with a focus on entrepreneurship) or related fields. The master’s
  should have been obtained no more than six (6) years ago.
• Research or work experience at the intersection of management and sustainable energies
• Excellent academic track record
• Proficiency in English language
• Extracurricular skills, social engagement, and strong motivation
• Nationality from one of the eligible countries in the Global South

Scholarship Coverage

The duration of the scholarship program is four (4) years, starting from 1 August 2025 to 31 July 2029. The scholarship will cover university tuition and functional fees, research fees, a monthly stipend of EUR 500, local mobility to the Living Lab as well as international mobility to SEED Partner Universities and to leading international conferences.

Further information

If you have any questions regarding this call, contact the Dean, School of Engineering, CEDAT,
or contact Dr. Francis Mujjuni via email at cedat.soe@mak.ac.ug.

Assoc. Prof. Dorothy Okello
Dean, School of Engineering, CEDAT
Makerere University