Natural Sciences
Banana’s Large Plant Body Size an Advantage to Disease Control – Mak Scientists
Unlike for plants, in animals especially humans, body mass index (BMI, which is a person’s weight divided by the square of height) is a measure of physical health and pre-disposure to conditions like obesity. BMI does not make sense in plant health because of differences between plant and animal physiological systems.
However, large body size in plants may have some advantages. Apart from controlling a larger proportion of available resources and space within crowded vegetation, what other advantage does a large plant body size offer to an individual plant?
The banana’s plant body architecture
From the botanical point-of-view, the banana plant is a gigantic herb. A plant that is a herb or “herbaceous” is unable to undergo “secondary growth” and cannot form wood during its vegetative development.
The banana plant springs from an underground “true stem”, also called the “corm” or “rhizome”, to form a false stem, also called a “pseudostem” of 2-7 m height. The pseudostem is composed of the basal portions of leaf sheaths and is crowned with a rosette of 10 to 20 oblong to elliptic leaves that sometimes attain a length of 2-4 m and a breadth of 70 cm.
In mature banana plants, true stem emerges at the top of the pseudostem and bends downward to become a bunch of 10 to 300 individual fruits, or fingers, grouped in clusters, or hands, of 3 to 22. The edible part of the bunch is the female. In contrast, the inedible distal part, including the purple-colored cone-shaped end (locally known in some Ugandan dialects as “omukanaana” or “empumumpu”) constitutes the male part of the bunch.
How is the giant banana size an advantage in disease control?
A new study, titled “Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum Bacterial Infection Induces Organ-Specific Callose and Hydrogen Peroxide Production in Banana” and led by a team of scientists at the Department of Plant Sciences, Microbiology and Biotechnology at Makerere University in collaboration with the University of California, Davis, USA, shows how the giant banana body size can be used to control banana Xanthomonas wilt (BXW) disease.
According to Prof. Arthur Tugume, the lead scientist of this study and expert in plant pathology, when plants get infected, they respond instantly by implementing different strategies that limit the multiplication and/or mobility of the disease agents (pathogens). “For example, plants rapidly produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as hydrogen peroxide, superoxide ions, and hydroxyl ions. These ROS act as rapid messengers in the plant tissues to activate additional responses spreading over the entire plant body. This helps the plant’s distant tissues or organs to be aware and prepare advance defenses against the intruding pathogens”.
Prof. Dinesh-Kumar the project’s research collaborator based at the University of California-Davis, USA and expert in plant biology explains that “disease is a form of stress in plants and plants cannot perform well their biological functions when they are sick since they have to spend a lot of energy fighting against the disease. This is why disease control is important to enable plants grow well and yield high.”
The research indicates that ROS set in motion additional processes to ensure limited impact of disease and pathogens on the plant. For example, Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which is a ROS, has direct bactericidal, fungicidal or other anti-effects on the pathogens. Also, following H2O2 production, a unique plant carbohydrate, named “callose” starts to accumulate in large quantities within plant cells as a means of fortifying plant tissues. Callose differs from the other usual plant carbohydrates such as starch or cellulose because of the way its structures are formed.
Increased production of callose acts as a roadblock to any pathogen e.g., bacteria by limiting bacterial movement that would otherwise allow ease of attack on other tissues or cells at distant locations in the plant. “Although these plant defense responses are rapid, plant organs that are distant from the site of pathogen attack can be instrumental and block progression of bacteria or other pathogens by depositing callose in advance at strategic points” Prof. Tugume explains.
However, Prof. Tugume notes that callose participates also in many other normal developmental processes of plants, and for that reason, there is always some “housekeeping” callose in the plant tissues even without pathogenic infection. “This means that one must be able to accurately and quantitatively distinguish between ‘stress-induced’ and normal ‘housekeeping’ callose”, he adds.
How was the study done?
In this study, the researchers used young (2.5-months old) banana plantlets that had been generated from tissue culture at Kawanda Agricultural Research Institute. They then infected the plantlets with a bacterium called Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum (Xcm). This bacterium is the causative agent of banana Xanthomonas Wilt (BXW), the most destructive disease of bananas in East and Central Africa (ECA).
The banana leaves, pseudostems, corms and roots were analyzed for callose and compared with the control plants that had been inoculated with water instead of bacteria. H2O2 production was monitored by “DAB staining”, and by “spectrophotometry” while the analysis of callose was done by two methods: staining and visualization of callose using florescence microscopy, and using “Sandwich Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay” methods.
What did the researchers discover and how can it be used in BXW disease control?
This study revealed that the underground corm tissues assemble the stiffest resistance against BXW by depositing the highest concentrations of callose, while the pseudostem produced the highest quantities of H2O2. This is interesting for three (3) main reasons:
- Firstly, Xcm bacteria often enter through the leaves in regular plantation husbandry; hence, the corm being distant from leaves gives it an anatomical advantage in promoting the ability of lateral plants to escape Xcm infection.
- Secondly, the corm is an organ of perennation supporting vegetative and perennial continuity of the crop across seasons; hence it is charged in ensuring a disease-free next generation by severely constraining “mother-child transmission” of Xcm bacteria.
- Thirdly, the control of BXW now becomes easy when farmers are observant to the first aerial disease symptoms because Xcm is strongly constrained by bottlenecks in the pseudostem and corm.
Therefore, at the onset of aerial symptoms, diseased peudostems should immediately be removed by aseptically cutting them off at the corm without interfering with symptomless lateral shoots, which allows continuous food production and disease control to go on simultaneously. This is facilitated by the large size of the banana plant because at the onset of leaf symptoms (2.5 to 5 meters away from the corm), the bacteria have not yet arrived at the base of the pseudostem where the diseased plant can be cut off from the corm. This gives chance to a farmer to eliminate the infected pseudostems early (in 1 to 7 days) since the appearance of leaf symptoms.
This research was part of the PhD studies for Mr. Abubakar S. Mustafa at Makerere University and University of California, Davis. According to Mr. Mustafa, these discoveries make the management of BXW in banana plantations easy as long as the farmers are observant and act fast by removing diseased plants aseptically.
This study has been published by the American Phytopathological Society (APS) in an open access journal, “PhytoFrontiers”, and is freely accessible on https://apsjournals.apsnet.org/doi/full/10.1094/PHYTOFR-11-21-0073-R.
This study was funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation through the National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO), Uganda. The project had partners including the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), the Alliance for Bioversity International and International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International (CABI).
For more details, contact;
Prof. Arthur Tugume
Lead Scientist
College of Natural Sciences (CoNAS)
Makerere University
Email: arthur.tugume@mak.ac.ug
Tel: +256772514841
Mr. Abubakar S. Mustafa
Co-Author and PhD student on the study
Email: mustafa.abubakar.sadik@gmail.com
Tel: +256702813233
Hasifa Kabejja
Principal Communication Officer
College of Natural Sciences (CoNAS)
Makerere University
Email: pr.cns@mak.ac.ug
Tel: +256774904211
Natural Sciences
Enhancing Experiential Learning: ZPEB Uganda Donates Well Control System Demonstration Model to Mak’s Department of Geology & Petroleum Studies
ZPEB Uganda Co. Limited has donated a Well Control System Demonstration Model to the Department of Geology and Petroleum Studies at Makerere University, a contribution expected to significantly enhance practical training, research, and industry-oriented learning in petroleum geoscience and drilling engineering.
The equipment was officially handed over to Makerere University at a ceremony held on 5th August 2026 at Onomo Hotel Kampala. The event was attended by Makerere University Vice Chancellor, Prof. Barnabas Nawangwe, alongside representatives from the Department of Geology and Petroleum Studies led by the Head, Dr John Mary Kiberu.
The Well Control System Demonstration Model is an advanced educational training tool designed to provide students with practical understanding of well control principles, equipment operation, and safety procedures applied during drilling operations. Although it is not intended for field deployment, the model offers a realistic representation of the systems and processes used in the prevention and management of well control incidents, including blowouts, enabling students to acquire practical experience within a safe learning environment.
The equipment will significantly enhance students’ understanding of well control systems by providing practical demonstrations of pressure management techniques and strengthening their competencies in kick detection, well control procedures, drilling safety, and emergency response.
By integrating practical demonstrations into petroleum education, the model will contribute to the development of highly skilled graduates equipped with the technical knowledge and practical capabilities required to support Uganda’s emerging oil and gas industry.
ZPEB Uganda Co. Limited, the donor of the equipment, is the Ugandan subsidiary of Zhongyuan Petroleum Exploration Bureau (ZPEB), a globally recognized Chinese drilling contractor with extensive expertise in oil and gas exploration, drilling, cementing, and engineering services. The company has been actively involved in supporting petroleum exploration and development activities in Uganda while contributing to capacity building within the country’s oil and gas sector.
The Department of Geology and Petroleum Studies at Makerere University continues to play a pivotal role in developing professionals who contribute to the sustainable exploration and management of natural resources. Through its undergraduate and postgraduate programmes, the Department equips students with comprehensive knowledge and practical skills in geology, petroleum systems, exploration methods, reservoir characterization, and production technologies.
Natural Sciences
CoNAS Orientation: First Year Students Urged to Lay Strong Foundation for Academic & Professional Success
First Year students admitted to the College of Natural Sciences (CoNAS) at Makerere University for the Academic Year 2026/2027 have been encouraged to remain focused on their studies, embrace the opportunities available at the University, and lay a strong foundation for successful academic and professional careers.
The call was made during the orientation ceremony held on 5th August 2026 at the College premises. The session introduced the students to university life and policies, academic expectations, support services, and the diverse opportunities available within the College and University, helping them make a smooth transition from secondary school to higher education.
The orientation was attended by the College Management led by the Principal, Prof. Winston Tumps Ireeta, the Deputy Principal, Prof. Juma Kasozi, Deans, Heads of Departments, academic staff, and representatives from various University administrative units.
Welcoming the students, the Principal, Prof. Winston Tumps Ireeta, congratulated them on securing admission to one of Uganda’s leading science colleges and encouraged them to take full advantage of the opportunities available at the University.
“CoNAS is internationally recognized for excellence in teaching, research, and innovation. Supported by highly qualified academic staff, 95 per cent of whom are PhD holders, the College provides high-quality education, equipping students with the knowledge, skills, and global perspectives needed to excel in an increasingly competitive world.”
Prof. Ireeta urged the students to approach university life with discipline and commitment from the outset, encouraging them to attend lectures consistently and develop effective study habits that would enable them to excel academically. While acknowledging that university life presents many social opportunities, he advised the students to maintain a healthy balance between academics and extracurricular activities.
The Deputy Principal, Prof. Juma Kasozi, challenged the students to take personal responsibility for their learning and professional development. He encouraged them to cultivate a culture of discipline, curiosity, and continuous learning, emphasizing that academic success is achieved through consistent effort rather than last-minute preparation.
He equally advised the students to attend all lectures, actively participate in all academic activities, and develop strong computer and statistical skills – competencies that are increasingly vital for success across scientific disciplines and in today’s evolving workplace.
He also urged the students to uphold academic integrity, manage their time effectively, and seek guidance whenever they encounter academic or personal challenges.
The Deans introduced students to the departments and academic programmes within their respective Schools, explaining programme structures, academic expectations, career prospects, and the support systems available to facilitate student success. They encouraged the students to take advantage of the mentorship opportunities offered by academic staff.
Addressing the students, the Acting Dean, School of Biosciences, also Head of the Department of Zoology, Entomology and Fisheries Sciences, Dr. Godfrey Kawooya Kubiriza, encouraged the students to embrace the programmes to which they were admitted, noting that each programme offers unique opportunities for learning, research, innovation, and career growth. “Success depends more on commitment, dedication, and hard work than on the title of one’s degree programme.” Dr. Kubiriza reminded the students that, while university life provides greater freedom and independence, it also requires a strong sense of responsibility, self-discipline, and effective time management to achieve academic success.
The Dean of the School of Physical Sciences, Prof. David Ssevviiri, underscored the critical role that science graduates play in driving national development through research, innovation, and technological advancement. He encouraged students to maximize the opportunities available within the School and urged them to adopt a finalist mindset from their very first semester by setting high academic standards and remaining committed to excellence throughout their academic journey.
Ms. Barbra Akello and Mr. Ivan Ocen shared practical insights on strategies for achieving a good CGPA. They encouraged students to take personal responsibility for their academic success by embracing self-directed excellence, setting clear academic goals, and developing effective study habits from the beginning of their university journey. They advised students to actively engage with lecturers, seek academic guidance whenever necessary, and build supportive study networks. They emphasized that consistent effort, early preparation, discipline, and a focused approach to learning are key foundations for attaining good grades and succeeding at the university.
Students also received comprehensive guidance on academic procedures and University regulations from representatives of the College Registrar’s Office, Ms. Hellen Mirembe and Ms. Hasifa Mukyala. They explained key processes relating to admission, registration, enrolment, progression requirements, examinations, academic appeals, and withdrawal procedures, while emphasizing the importance of honesty, integrity, and compliance with the University regulations. The students were also sensistized on the library services and fees payment policy.
The Deputy Director of the Institute of Open, Distance and e-Learning (IODeL), Dr. Godfrey Mayende, introduced students to the University’s digital learning environment. He demonstrated how students can effectively utilize the Makerere University Electronic Learning Environment (MUELE) to access course materials, submit assignments, and interact with lecturers. He also encouraged responsible and ethical use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools to support learning while observing the University’s academic integrity policies.
Representatives from the Gender Mainstreaming Directorate, the Counseling and Guidance Centre, and the Emerging Leaders’ Programme introduced students to institutional support services aimed at fostering academic success, personal growth, and wellbeing. They emphasized the availability of guidance, mentorship, and leadership development opportunities to help students effectively navigate university life and make informed decisions throughout their academic journey.
Photos of the orientation ceremony: https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1eGEb6tAYcr15qQHIuV-Imgclu9sueOk7?usp=sharing
As the world of work continues to evolve, employers are increasingly seeking graduates who possess not only theoretical knowledge but also practical skills, problem-solving abilities, creativity, digital competence, and the ability to adapt to the rapidly changing technological and professional environments. In response to these demands, Uganda is embracing Competency-Based Education and Training (CBET), an approach that emphasizes the practical application of knowledge and skills needed to perform effectively in real-world settings.
Following the introduction of the Competency-Based Curriculum in secondary schools in 2019, the Ministry of Education and Sports directed institutions of higher learning to transition to competency-based education by 2027. The reform requires universities to redesign their curricula, adopt learner-centred teaching methods, strengthen practical training, and implement authentic assessment approaches that prepare graduates for both formal and informal employment.
Building Capacity for Competency-Based Education
In support of this national transition, Makerere University is strengthening the capacity of its staff to develop and implement competency-based programmes. From 21st to 23rd July 2026, the College of Natural Sciences (CoNAS) conducted a three-day capacity-building training for academic and technical staff to deepen their understanding of CBET principles and equip them with the skills required to design, deliver, and assess competency-based curricula.
Held at Ridar Hotel in Seeta, the training was conducted with support from the Strengthening Commercial Aquaculture (SCA) Programme, funded by the Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in Kampala (EKN) and implemented by the COFAD Consortium (COFAD–ThinkAqua–WUR). The programme is also supporting the Department of Zoology, Entomology and Fisheries Sciences (ZEFS) to review its undergraduate and postgraduate aquaculture programmes to align them with competency-based education and the evolving needs of Uganda’s growing commercial aquaculture sector.
The transition of ZEFS programmes to CBET presents a strategic opportunity for Makerere University to develop a flagship model for science-based competency-based education that could inform implementation across the University.
The Training Workshop
Officially opened by the Deputy Principal of the College of Natural Sciences (CoNAS), Prof. Juma Kasozi, the training was attended by staff from the Departments of Zoology, Entomology and Fisheries Sciences; Plant Sciences; Microbiology and Biotechnology; Biochemistry and Systems Biology; Exercise and Sports Science; and Chemistry. It was coordinated by Dr. Godfrey Kawooya Kubiriza, Head of the Department of Zoology, Entomology and Fisheries Sciences and one of the coordinators of the Competency-Based Education and Training (CBET) Programme at Makerere University.
The facilitators included Mr. Joshua Kunya, TVET Specialist and Training Consultant; Mr. Richard Basalirwa, an associate consultant and process expert with Skills Initiative Uganda; Dr. Cyprian Misinde, Director of Quality Assurance at Makerere University; and Mr. Maurice Ssebisubi, Lead Consultant for the Diagnostic and Rapid Needs Assessment of the BSc Fisheries and Aquaculture and MSc Zoology (Fisheries and Aquaculture) curricula at Makerere University.
Throughout the training, participants explored the principles of competency-based education and examined how universities can move beyond traditional knowledge transmission towards teaching and learning approaches that develop and improve practical competence, critical thinking, innovation, teamwork, communication, ethical leadership, digital literacy, and entrepreneurship.
Presentations also examined Makerere University’s curriculum development framework, emphasizing the importance of aligning academic programmes with national quality assurance standards, labour market demands, and international best practices. Participants underscored the need for curriculum reform to be informed by industry requirements and designed to produce graduates who can effectively apply their knowledge and skills in professional, entrepreneurial, and community settings.
Recommendations from the Diagnostic Assessment of the BSc & MSc Fisheries & Aquaculture
A key highlight of the training was the presentation of findings from a diagnostic assessment of the Bachelor of Science in Fisheries and Aquaculture and the Master of Science in Zoology (Fisheries and Aquaculture) programmes, conducted under the leadership of Mr. Maurice Ssebisubi. The assessment involved curriculum reviews, surveys of alumni and students, and consultations with employers and other stakeholders. It found that, although the programmes provide a strong scientific foundation, they require further strengthening to fully meet the requirements of competency-based education.
The assessment identified several gaps, including limited opportunities for practical and workplace learning, inadequate digital competencies, insufficient enterprise and business management skills, heavy reliance on end-of-semester examinations, and learning outcomes that place greater emphasis on knowledge acquisition than on the demonstration of competence.
To address these gaps, the assessors recommended revising learning outcomes, strengthening partnerships with industry, expanding supervised workplace learning, integrating digital technologies, modernising technical content, and adopting continuous competency-based assessment approaches.
Programme Review
During the practical sessions, participants worked in departmental groups to review existing curricula and redesign programme objectives, learning outcomes, teaching strategies, and assessment methods in line with CBET principles. These collaborative exercises enabled staff to begin developing curricula that are more learner-centred, industry-responsive, and aligned with Uganda’s national development priorities.
Participants identified several institutional requirements for the successful implementation of CBET, including increased investment in infrastructure and teaching resources, continuous staff development, strengthened quality assurance systems, and closer collaboration with industry.
While acknowledging that the transition to competency-based education will require significant institutional commitment and resources, participants noted that it presents an important opportunity to enhance graduate employability, foster innovation, strengthen industry linkages, and increase the contribution of universities to Uganda’s socio-economic development.
SCA Programme Reaffirms Support for Aquaculture Education
Speaking at the training, David Bargh, Team Leader of the Strengthening Commercial Aquaculture (SCA) Programme, reaffirmed the programme’s commitment to supporting Makerere University in strengthening aquaculture education and aligning its programmes with the evolving needs of the sector.
“A strong aquaculture sector requires skilled professionals. This is why curriculum reform is so important. Competency-based education focuses not only on what students know, but also on what they can do. Your role as lecturers and technicians is therefore central to producing graduates who are practical, innovative, and equipped to contribute meaningfully to Uganda’s aquaculture development.”
Appreciation to the funders
Addressing the participants, Prof. Juma Kasozi, Deputy Principal of (CoNAS), appreciated the funders for the support towards strengthening the quality, relevance, and impact of university education. He emphasized that Makerere University occupies a unique position in Africa’s academic landscape and therefore has a responsibility to remain responsive to the changing needs of society and the world of work. While acknowledging the University’s achievements and long-standing contribution to higher education, he noted that the rapidly changing social, economic, technological, and professional environment requires universities to rethink how they prepare graduates for the future. “Students should leave the university with more than academic qualifications – they should possess the practical skills, competencies, creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving abilities needed to apply their knowledge effectively in the workplace and contribute meaningfully to national development.”
Dr. Godfrey Kawooya Kubiriza, Coordinator of the training and the CBET Programme equally appreciated the funders for the support. He underscored the need for staff to embrace the shift in mindset required by CBET, noting that successful implementation will depend on the ability of lecturers and technical staff to move beyond traditional approaches to teaching and assessment. He expressed optimism that the training would provide a strong foundation for the participating departments to develop and implement programmes that respond effectively to the changing needs of students, employers, industry, and society.
Photo highlights from Day One of the training: https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1DZ_yEI2008uGo48C7hRyBZO8Dimxi_ky?usp=sharing
Photo highlights from Day Two and Three: https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1XvsM3yggYG7FKX30binqpITB0wPBulhQ?usp=sharing
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