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Mak’s Prof Banadda Becomes First African to Scoop Distinguished Pius XI Gold Medal

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Makerere University Don Prof.  Noble Banadda has been awarded the Pius XI Gold Medal for the year 2018. The award, given by the Pontifical Academy of Sciences based at the Vatican, is in recognition of his outstanding scientific research.

Twenty-eight winners have been awarded the Pius XI Gold Medal since its launch in 1961, but Prof. Banadda will be the first African to receive it. Prof. Banadda is currently the Chair, Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences (CAES).

Prof. Noble Banadda, Chair, Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, CAES presents candidates for Graduation at a previous ceremony

Prof. Banadda will make a presentation on his most important scientific research and most honorably receive the Golden medal from the Pope. The Council of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences is set to present him the Pius XI Gold Medal 2018 during the next Plenary Session to be held in the Vatican from 12th to 14th November 2018. He was selected by unanimous decision of the Academy Council from among many candidates proposed.

A letter addressed to Prof. Banadda dated 26th July, 2018, indicated that the actual award will take place during the Solemn Audience which the Holy Father Pope Francis will grant the participants of the plenary Session.

Prof. Noble Banadda shows of a previous award-Global Young Academy 2013

“I am very happy to inform you that the Council of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences has unanimously decided to award you the Pius XI Medal for the year 2018, in recognition of your outstanding scientific research. On behalf of all our Academicians and the Chancellery I wish to extend to you our warmest congratulations on being chosen from among the candidates proposed.

The medal will be presented to you personally during our next Plenary Session, which this year is addressed to transformative Roles of Science in Society: From Emerging Basic Science Toward Solutions for people’s wellbeing and will be held in the Vatican from 12 to 14 November 2018,” read part of the letter to Prof. Banadda.

Prof. Noble Banadda and other dignitaries at the launch of the MV Mulimi-a multi-purpose tractor on 31st December 2015, MUARIK, Makerere University, Wakiso Uganda

The Pius XI Gold Medal is awarded every two years.  In his previous address to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences on 28th November 2016, Pope Francis underscored the role and position of scientists in society.

“Very briefly, I would say that it falls to scientists, who work free of political, economic or ideological interests, to develop a cultural model which can face the crisis of climatic change and its social consequences, so that the vast potential of productivity will not be reserved only for the few.

Prof. Noble Banadda (hunching) demonstrates his solar irrigation innovation to the Prime Minister Rt. Hon. Dr. Ruhakana Rugunda at his offices

Just as the scientific community, through interdisciplinary dialogue, has been able to research and demonstrate our planet’s crisis, so today that same community is called to offer a leadership that provides general and specific solutions for issues which your plenary meeting will confront: water, renewable forms of energy and food security.

It has now become essential to create, with your cooperation, a normative system that includes inviolable limits and ensures the protection of ecosystems, before the new forms of power deriving from the techno-economic model causes irreversible harm not only to the environment, but also to our societies, to democracy, to justice and freedom,” Pope Francis, Address to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, 28 November 2016.

Prof. Banadda attributes all his achievments  to God and all those who prayed for him

Banadda in his response was grateful to God and whoever prayed for him to rise to that level

“Frankly, when I look at the list of previous winners, I am speechless because Hawkings was a global icon in Physics until his death recently. I didn’t apply for it. I am yet to come to terms to this fact that Pope Francis will give me that award on November 14 in a 75 seater room in the Vatican.

They have already sent me the details of everything including the room where I shall meet the Pope! It’s a great honor to me, Makerere University and Uganda, “he said.

Prof. Noble Banadda (2nd R), Assoc. Prof. Jeffrey Seay (4th R) and other members of the Research Team test the organic pesticide (Vinegar) made from agricultural waste like eucalyptus saw dust on an anthill

Banadda however did not comment on how he will be addressed after the award and also does not know what will come with it.

“The Pontifical Academy makes it own search and recommends someone  it suits. I therefore have no clue on how they searched and landed on my name.

The reason in the award letter is Scientific Excellence and I will automatically be admitted to the Pontifical Academy after this award, Prof. Banadda said.

The Pontifical Academy of Sciences & The Pius XI Gold Medal

The Pontifical Academy of Sciences was founded on 28th October 1936 by the Holy Father Pius XI, to honor pure science, wherever this may be found, to ensure its freedom, and to support the research essential for the progress of applied science.

The Pius XI Gold Medal was established on 28th October 1961 by His Holiness pope John XXIII to acknowledge outstanding scientific merit in the field of the natural sciences achieved by a young scientist under the age of 45. It was named after Pius XI who, in 1936, restored the Academy that had originally been founded by Federico Cesi in 1603, and gave it its international and global character.

 Past recipients include: R.B. Woodward (1961), B.E. Anderson (1962), A. Bohr (1963), F. Gros (1964), A.R. Sandage (1966), H. Kanatani (1970), G. Nemethy (1972), S.W. Hawking (1975), L. Luzzatto (1976), A. Paes de Carvalho (1979), J.M. Lehn (1981), G. ‘t Hooft (1983), E.A. Benays (1986), L.A. Caffarelli Dehaene (2000), J.M. Maldacena (2002), L. Saint-Raymind (2004), A. Sen (2006), P. Mehlen (2010), T. –J. Chuang and U. Poschl (2012), C. Villani (2014), M. Sigman (2016).

About Prof. Noble Banadda

Prof. Banadda grew up in Kabale, South-Western, Uganda. He went to Kigezi Primary School Kabale then moved to Bugema Adventist College for lower secondary school and Kyambogo College School for Higher school.

He was the first black African to get a PhD in chemical engineering after 600 years of existence of the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (Belgium); one of the oldest universities in the world established in 1425 – a no mean achievement that opened doors and acceptance to blacks to do a doctorate in Chemical engineering.

He holds an MSc in Processing Engineering from the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (Belgium) and a BSc Food Science and Technology from Sokoine University of Agriculture (Tanzania).

In 2007, he won the Cochran Fellowship to undertake postdoctoral studies in the Department of Chemical Engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (USA).

In August 2012 he was appointed a full professor at the age of 37 years. This was the first ever in the Department of Agricultural and Bio Systems Engineering at Makerere University and the only one to-date.

 He was the youngest fellow to join the Uganda National Academy of Sciences in 2013 and the only person to qualify to be in both the young and senior academy in Uganda.

In 2015, he was among the only seven Africans that qualified as fellows of the prestigious Next Einstein Fellowship.

Prof. Banadda’s research interests are broadly in mathematical modeling, biological systems and renewable energy. In academia, he has served as a visiting professor in universities in Africa, Europe and USA and supervised several Master’s and PhD theses.

He has authored over 80 peer reviewed scientific papers in international journals and with 1,395 citations on Google Scholar, he is ranked 64th globally and 5th in Africa in waste management research.

Groundbreaking research, technologies and innovations

Prof. Banadda first won a research grant from the Regional Universities Forum for Capacity Building in Agriculture (RUFORUM) in 2011 through it Competitive Graduate Research Scheme. His research was on, “Investigating contamination risks associated with wrapping indigenous foods in plastic bags during thermal processing.” The study that sought to address public health concerns found that both black and green polyethylene bags, commonly used to wrap food in Uganda, contained heavy metals in varying concentrations which migrated into food during cooking at different temperatures and their migration increased with increase in temperature and holding time. This therefore exposes people to ingesting heavy metals, though in small quantities, but which may accumulate over a long period of time and cause health problems.

In 2015, he won a second grant to carry out research on “Pyrolysis of agricultural waste for bioethanol production”. The purpose of this research was to produce ethanol from low cost agricultural biomass such as banana peels, straws, plant stalks, stovers and molasses in order to make it competitive as a direct fuel or blended into petrol as an additive. Success of this project will, among other benefits, enhance incomes, moderate fuel prices, attract youth into agriculture, and create jobs.

In March 2016, Prof. Banadda hit media headlines for coming up with a new technology of making diesel from heavy plastics. The demonstration was carried out at the engineering workshop at the university farm at Kabanyolo.  The innovation was the first of its kind in the country and a step towards utilizing waste polythene bags/ plastics and addressing the problem of the hazards caused by poor disposal of polythene bags in the country. The diesel can be used in motor vehicle engines, generators, lighting in the house and lighting charcoal stoves among others. What remains after the chemical extraction of diesel can also be used as manure in gardens to enhance soil fertility.

In July 2016, Banadda unveiled an organic pesticide (Vinegar) from agricultural waste mainly from eucalyptus saw dust that has no human health and environmental effect. This organic pesticide can be easily used by farmers to control pests like the red ants which are a common menace to Ugandan farmers. The organic pesticide was tested and sprayed on various insects and red ants at the Makerere University Agricultural Research Institute Kabanyolo, where results were impressive. The research breakthrough presents business opportunities for organic farming and export.

Another jubilant moment was when Prof. Banadda crowned the year 2015 by launching the first ever Makerere University MV Mulimi – a multipurpose cost-effective farmer’s tractor. The innovation was launched on 31st December, 2015 at Makerere University Agricultural Research Institute Kabanyolo (MUARIK) with the aim of providing practical solutions to basic farm problems faced by small scale farmers in Uganda. The Multipurpose tractor has been tested for and capable of performing five (5) tasks, namely; threshing maize to reduce postharvest losses; pumping water for irrigation; charging phones to keep farmers informed of Agricultural produce markets; hauling agricultural produce up to 1 ton and ploughing fields. The university can now fabricate this tractor at a cost of only 25 million shillings.

In March 2017, Prof. Banadda led a research team and developed a solar-powered Irrigation pump as a cheap and reliable solution for small scale farmers. This was launched by the Prime Minister Dr. Ruhakana Rugunda at his office on Parliamentary Avenue.  The entire system can be assembled at a cost of UGX6.5million. The system is composed of the solar panel (100watts), a battery, a pump and tubes and can efficiently work on surface water although adjustment can be made on the size of the solar panel and water pump to utilize underground water.

Report compiled by;
Jane Anyango,
Principal Communication Officer, CAES

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JICA, Makerere University Explore New Frontiers in AI and Research Collaboration

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Prof. Sarah Ssali presents the Makerere coffee table book to Dr. Okano Takasei as Makerere and JICA Officials witness on 4th September 2026. Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) delegation led by Dr. Okano Takasei meets DVCAA Prof. Sarah Ssali, explores new opportunities for strengthening academic, research and innovation collaboration between Uganda, Japan and other African countries, with a particular focus on artificial intelligence (AI), aerospace engineering, materials and remote sensing, food value chains, energy, water and climate change, 4th September 2026, Main Building, Makerere University, Kampala Uganda, East Africa.

By Moses Lutaaya

Kampala, September 4, 2026 — Makerere University and the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) have explored new opportunities for strengthening academic, research and innovation collaboration between Uganda, Japan and other African countries, with a particular focus on artificial intelligence (AI), aerospace engineering, materials and remote sensing, food value chains, energy, water and climate change.

The discussions took place on Friday, September 4, 2026, at the Makerere University Main Building in the Vice Chancellor’s Board Room, during a visit by a JICA delegation led by Dr. Okano Takasei, Senior Advisor, Human Development Department of JICA.

Makerere keen to deepen collaboration with JICA

Welcoming the delegation, the Deputy Vice Chancellor (Academic Affairs), Prof. Sarah Ssali, highlighted Makerere University’s long-standing tradition of research, international collaboration and contribution to knowledge generation in Uganda and beyond.

Prof. Ssali noted that Makerere has built a strong global research footprint through partnerships with institutions around the world, observing that the University is well positioned to deepen international collaboration as emerging technologies, particularly artificial intelligence, continue to transform research and higher education.

“Uganda has a very long history of doing research, and particularly it has informed research findings in the areas global health research,” Prof. Ssali said, pointing to Uganda’s historical contribution to global scientific knowledge.

She cited the country’s contribution to medical and biological research, including early research on sleeping sickness, noting that Uganda’s unique research environment continues to offer opportunities for scientific discovery.

Prof. Ssali said Makerere’s history of collaboration with Japan is particularly significant, noting that Japanese cooperation has contributed not only to academic and research activities but also to infrastructure development and other sectors in Uganda.

She cited the establishment of the JICA building at Makerere, describing it as one of the visible symbols of Japan’s long-standing partnership with Makerere University.

Prof. Sarah Ssali (R) presents a Makerere necktie to Dr. Okano Takasei (L). Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) delegation led by Dr. Okano Takasei meets DVCAA Prof. Sarah Ssali, explores new opportunities for strengthening academic, research and innovation collaboration between Uganda, Japan and other African countries, with a particular focus on artificial intelligence (AI), aerospace engineering, materials and remote sensing, food value chains, energy, water and climate change, 4th September 2026, Main Building, Makerere University, Kampala Uganda, East Africa.
Prof. Sarah Ssali (R) presents a Makerere necktie to Dr. Okano Takasei (L).

According to Prof. Ssali, the building, which houses College of Natural Sciences (CoNAS) disciplines of geology, petroleum studies and administrative offices, was constructed during her undergraduate years and completed within a remarkably short period.

Prof. Ssali said the long-standing relationship between Uganda, Makerere University and Japan provides a strong foundation upon which new areas of collaboration can be built. She encouraged the visiting JICA delegation to explore the University and identify areas where existing partnerships could be strengthened or new areas of cooperation developed.

“Please take time and explore and see where either you already have a footprint, where you’ve ever had a footprint, or where you could explore new areas,” she said.

Prof. Ssali added that Makerere was privileged to host the JICA delegation and expressed optimism that the visit would lead to meaningful and sustainable partnerships.

Strengthening Joint Collaboration through AJ-ASPIRE

Dr. Okano, in his remarks as leader of the delegation said the visit formed part of a broader JICA initiative aimed at promoting academic and research collaboration between Japanese and African universities.

He explained that the initiative was launched on the occasion of the ninth Tokyo International Conference on African Development (TICAD 9), held in Yokohama in September 2025, with the objective of strengthening academic and research partnerships between Japan and Africa.

According to Dr. Okano, the initiative is intended to benefit both African and Japanese universities by providing platforms for internationalisation, collaborative research and the exchange of knowledge, researchers and students. “We would like to play a role of facilitator between universities in Japan and Africa and Uganda as well,” he said.

He explained that JICA is currently promoting the initiative through three African hub universities where JICA already has ongoing projects and experts on the ground.

The three institutions are Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology (E-JUST) in Egypt, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT) in Kenya, and Stellenbosch University in South Africa.

Dr. Okano said the selection of the three institutions was informed by the presence of ongoing JICA-supported projects and experts who can facilitate collaboration between the hub universities and institutions across Africa and Japan.

Dr. Okano Takasei makes his remarks. Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) delegation led by Dr. Okano Takasei meets DVCAA Prof. Sarah Ssali, explores new opportunities for strengthening academic, research and innovation collaboration between Uganda, Japan and other African countries, with a particular focus on artificial intelligence (AI), aerospace engineering, materials and remote sensing, food value chains, energy, water and climate change, 4th September 2026, Main Building, Makerere University, Kampala Uganda, East Africa.
Dr. Okano Takasei makes his remarks.

The hub universities are currently coordinating research with Japanese universities in strategic areas, with E-JUST focusing on energy, JKUAT leading work on food value chains, and Stellenbosch University focusing on water and climate change.

Dr. Okano said JICA was particularly pleased to explore collaboration with Makerere University under the African-Japan Initiative for Research and Education Partnerships, known as AJ-ASPIRE.

He outlined three major avenues through which Makerere could participate in the initiative.

The first is participation in existing research programmes hosted by the three hub universities. He added that Makerere researchers could join ongoing research on energy, food value chains, water and climate change, thereby creating opportunities to work with Japanese and other African researchers.

“We would like to explore opportunity for researchers from Makerere University to participate in these ongoing research activities and expand collaboration with Japanese and African partner institutions,” Dr. Okano said.

The second area is the development of new research networks in artificial intelligence and aerospace engineering. Dr. Okano said JICA was planning to establish new research groups focusing on the two areas and would be interested in having Makerere researchers participate in the emerging networks. “We would like to also invite researchers from Makerere University to join these networks and implementation of future collaboration in these two research topics, aerospace engineering and AI,” he said.

The third proposed avenue is increased collaboration between Makerere University and E-JUST, which Dr. Okano said offers fully funded scholarship opportunities for African students through a programme jointly supported by the governments of Egypt and Japan.

He noted that a number of Makerere graduates have already benefited from the programme, including researchers who have pursued doctoral studies and research opportunities in Egypt and Japan.

Dr. Okano cited the example of Mr. Abdonoor Kalibala, a Makerere alumnus whom he recently met in Hiroshima, Japan, following completion of PhD in Mechatronics and Robotics engineering at E-JUST. Mr. Kalibala conducted research in Japan for up to six months under the supervision of a Japanese professor as part of his doctoral programme.

Dr. Okano said such programmes could help strengthen the movement of researchers between Uganda, Egypt and Japan and create lasting institutional partnerships.

He added that JICA is also providing small research grants to alumni of the programmes to help them maintain and expand research collaboration involving Japan, E-JUST and African institutions.

He said Makerere could leverage such opportunities to increase the participation of its students and researchers in international research networks.

AI, Materials and Remote Sensing and International Relations Set the Pace

Prof. Robert Wamala, Director of Research, Innovations and Partnerships at Makerere University, said the visit followed an online engagement held a few weeks earlier between Makerere University and JICA, during which several areas and units within the University were identified as potential points of collaboration.

Prof. Wamala said these included the Makerere University AI Lab, the University’s International Office and researchers working in space engineering, particularly in materials and remote sensing.

He welcomed the transition from online discussions to physical engagement, saying the visit would allow JICA representatives to interact directly with researchers, academic units and University authorities. “This interest is being followed up through an in-person visit, which provides us an opportunity for JICA to engage directly with the relevant units and researchers at Makerere University,” Prof. Wamala said.

For Makerere, he added, the initiative provides an opportunity to connect the University’s research strengths with Japanese universities, research institutions and development partners to address shared development challenges.

L-R: Prof. Robert Wamala, Prof. Sarah Ssali, Ms. Eri Maeda and Dr. Okano Takasei flip through the Makerere Coffee Table book. Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) delegation led by Dr. Okano Takasei meets DVCAA Prof. Sarah Ssali, explores new opportunities for strengthening academic, research and innovation collaboration between Uganda, Japan and other African countries, with a particular focus on artificial intelligence (AI), aerospace engineering, materials and remote sensing, food value chains, energy, water and climate change, 4th September 2026, Main Building, Makerere University, Kampala Uganda, East Africa.
L-R: Prof. Robert Wamala, Prof. Sarah Ssali, Ms. Eri Maeda and Dr. Okano Takasei flip through the Makerere Coffee Table book.

Prof. Wamala said the University was particularly interested in identifying practical areas of collaboration that could move beyond general discussions to concrete research partnerships, joint projects and opportunities for students and researchers.

He noted that the JICA delegation’s on-campus interactions scheduled to take place throughout the day would enable the two sides to identify specific areas of mutual interest. “We hope these engagements will help us identify specific areas of future interest and provide a basis for developing concrete areas of collaboration under the AJ-ASPIRE,” Prof. Wamala said.

He reiterated Makerere’s commitment to strengthening international research partnerships and thanked JICA for its continued interest in the University.

Dr. Okano, was accompanied by Mr. Ito Idomu, Research and Advisor at the Embassy of Japan, Mr. Osaki Mistuhiro from JICA headquarters, Ms. Eric Maeda from JICA Headquarters, and Ms. Ruth Mbabazi from JICA Uganda.

JICA follow-up meetings with Makerere research units

Following the high-level meeting in the Vice Chancellor’s Board Room, the JICA team, together with the Directorate of Research, Innovations and Partnerships, proceeded to engage with key research and administrative units at Makerere University identified as strategic to the proposed areas of collaboration.

The delegation held meetings with the Makerere University AI Lab, led by Dr. Joyce Nabende of the College of Computing and Information Sciences (COCIS), to explore opportunities for cooperation in artificial intelligence and related emerging technologies.

The team also met officials from the Makerere University International Office, led by Mr. Mathias Ssemanda, where discussions focused on opportunities for strengthening international academic linkages, mobility and institutional partnerships.

A further engagement was held with the Department of Geomatics and Land Management, focusing on materials and remote sensing, led by Prof. Lydia Kayondo from the College of Engineering, Design, Art and Technology (CEDAT).

The engagements provided an opportunity for the JICA team and Makerere researchers to move from broad discussions on collaboration to more specific conversations around research interests, expertise, existing projects and potential areas for joint work.

The visit marks an important step towards strengthening Makerere University’s engagement with Japanese and African research institutions under AJ-ASPIRE, while opening opportunities for researchers and students to participate in emerging international networks in artificial intelligence, aerospace engineering, remote sensing and other strategic areas of science, technology and innovation.

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Undergraduate Admissions: Students allowed to Change Programs/Subjects 2026/27

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The Office of the Academic Registrar has released lists of students whose applications for change of Programme/Subjects have been approved for the Academic Year 2026/2027.

The lists can be accessed by following the inks below:

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Uganda to Launch ACT-PREP, Africa’s New Epidemic Preparedness Research Network

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A KCCA Medical Office debriefs the MakSPH Field Epidemiologists and Surveillance Team during the CoVID-19 pandemic. Makerere University School of Public Health, Kampala, Uganda, East Africa.

By Henry Mugenyi

When the next infectious disease outbreak strikes, the question for African researchers should not be whether they have the capacity to conduct the research, but how quickly they can begin.

That is the gap a new five-year research initiative, Advancing Clinical Trials and Epidemic Preparedness Research Capacity in Africa (ACT-PREP), is seeking to address.

The project will be officially launched in Uganda on September 28th, 2026, bringing together researchers and partners from universities and research institutions across Africa and Europe. The launch will be held at the Makerere University School of Public Health (MakSPH) Auditorium in Kampala.

Led by Makerere University School of Public Health, ACT-PREP is designed to strengthen Africa’s ability to conduct clinical trials and other research before and during infectious disease outbreaks.

Africa has repeatedly faced epidemics of diseases such as Marburg, Ebola, COVID-19 and other emerging infections. Yet when outbreaks occur, the capacity to quickly generate the evidence needed to guide treatment, prevention and public health decisions remains underdeveloped.

ACT-PREP aims to make research part of outbreak preparedness not something that begins only after an epidemic has already spread.

According to Prof Rhoda Wanyenze, the Principal Investigator on the project, “the initiative will establish a framework for more equitable collaboration among 10 African and two European institutions, working alongside Universities and the Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (Africa CDC)”.

The consortium includes institutions from Uganda, Rwanda, Tanzania, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Somalia, South Sudan and Senegal, as well as European partners in Sweden and Germany. Africa CDC is also among the participating institutions.

For Uganda, the launch at Makerere University is significant. The university is taking the scientific lead on a programme that places African research institutions at the centre of efforts to prepare for future epidemics.

One of ACT-PREP’s central ambitions is to address the shortage of researchers and systems capable of rapidly conducting high-quality clinical research during emergencies.

The project will strengthen clinical research, ethics and regulatory capacity, while also supporting laboratory and disease surveillance systems. It will integrate training into PhD and postdoctoral programmes, with the consortium aiming to train at least 700 fellows at the end of the project.

“The idea is straightforward: Africa needs not only laboratories and equipment, but also people with the skills to use them when an outbreak begins” – Says Dr Steven Kabwama, ACT-PREP Project Manager.

Researchers will also be supported to share expertise, data, resources and technology across institutions and national borders.

ACT-PREP will further explore One Health approaches and artificial intelligence-supported systems to improve disease prediction, detection and rapid response. The project also seeks to support more streamlined regulatory processes so that clinical trials can be deployed and monitored more quickly when they are needed.

The experience of recent epidemics has shown that time is one of the most valuable resources in an outbreak.

Delays in detecting a pathogen, setting up research sites, securing ethical and regulatory approvals or generating reliable evidence can affect how quickly health authorities are able to respond.

ACT-PREP is built around the idea that many of these systems should already be in place before the next emergency.

That means having trained researchers, functioning laboratories, established regulatory pathways, surveillance systems and relationships between institutions that can be activated when an outbreak occurs.

It also means changing how research partnerships are built.

Rather than relying on external institutions to arrive when a crisis begins, the project seeks to strengthen African institutions themselves and create longer-term collaborations in which expertise, technology, data and resources can be shared across borders.

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